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While improving ability to communicate effectively is a given for developing student leadership potential, there are very few systematic frameworks to guide communication skill improvement. Using a model of emotional and social skills derived from research in interpersonal and emotional/nonverbal communication, tools and strategies for both assessing possession of complex and sophisticated social/communication skills and their development are discussed. This well-researched model breaks down complex communication into well-defined skills that underlie the more abstract leadership competencies of emotional and social intelligences. It provides a foundation for enhancing the emotional and social skills of students that lead them to be more effective in positions of leadership, and in social interactions more generally. Specific strategies for communication skill development are suggested, as well as discussion of formal guides and resources to aid in student leadership development.

The proposed research aimed to examine abusive leadership and workplace ostracism as predictors of employee silence among school teachers in Sargodha, Pakistan. Studies further tend to examine the moderating role of power distance. Purposive sampling was employed to acquire the data. The research variables were quantified using the Abusive Supervision Scale (Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007), Workplace Exclusion Scale (Hitlan & Noel, 2009), Silence Scale (Van Dyne et al., 2003) and Power Distance Scale (Dorfman & Howell, 1988). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between abusive leadership, workplace ostracism, employee silence, and power distance. Results showed that abusive leadership, ostracism, silence, and power distance have a positive relationship with each other. The findings of linear regression revealed that abusive leadership, ostracism and power distance positively predicted employee silence. Moderation analysis revealed that power distance significantly moderated the relationship of abusive leadership and workplace ostracism with employee silence. The proposed research provides some recommendations and conclusions for future researchers who may be interested in examining the abuse that teachers experience in a high-power-distance culture that compels them to act silently.

This study aimed to explore the design and development of verbal prompts in virtual reality (VR)-based social skills training for autistic children. Autism indicates a category with neurodiversity that influences individuals' capability to engage in social and cognitive tasks. This complex neurodevelopmental condition manifests in a wide array of patterns, featuring unique experiences of each individual. This study explored both advantages and challenges encountered when autistic children interact with verbal prompts in multi-user, desktop VR-based social skills training. Our explanatory case study involved VR-based learning experiences of four autistic children. We used a qualitative thematic analysis to analyse the study participants' interaction patterns with verbal prompts in the VR-based training. Our research can contribute to both theoretical knowledge and practical design guidelines for the creation of verbal prompts in desktop VR-based training programmes tailored for autistic children.

One of the most well-known instructional methods used to enhance Chinese character reading (CCR) is Chinese stem-deriving instruction (CSDI). In this method, CCR is taught via a group of characters (e.g., [foreign character omitted], [foreign character omitted], and [foreign character omitted]) that share the same stem (e.g., [foreign character omitted]). However, the effectiveness of CSDI on the CCR of Chinese children with dyslexia remains inconsistent, and the reason may be the diverse designs of this method across studies. Thus, this study aimed to use a quasiexperiment-design study to compare the effects of various forms of CSDI based on the (in)consistency of the extending characters' sounds, their appearances, and their amount (i.e., how many of them). In total, 122 Chinese third to sixth graders with dyslexia were recruited from primary schools, and they were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) visuospatially controlled CSDI (n = 37; all taught characters shared the same pronunciation), (b) verbally controlled CSDI (n = 45; all taught characters shared the same structure), and (c) noncontrolled CSDI (n = 40; all taught characters selected only on the basis of their frequencies). They were tested by CCR and dictation before and after the instruction. We found that CCR was significantly improved in all three CSDI groups, whereas only the verbally controlled CSDI group showed significant improvements in dictation. Furthermore, verbally and visuospatially controlled CSDI earned the greatest benefits in decreasing the visual errors and phonetic errors in CCR and decreasing the radical errors and homophone errors in dictation. Our findings shed light on the effectiveness of CSDI in terms of diverse designs, and frontline practitioners should take our findings into consideration when using CSDI.

Purpose: The aim of the present study was to develop and validate a patient-reported outcome measure for gender incongruence specific to voice and communication parameters, including pitch, intonation, resonance, loudness, speech smoothness, speech clarity, word choice, facial expression, gesture, and posture. Method: The Utah Gender Presentation Scale for Communication (U-GPS) includes 10 items, each on a 10-point scale from masculine to feminine. Items were selected based on literature review and patient focus groups. During test administration, respondents provide their current rating and goal rating for each item. The difference between these scores is used to calculate an overall incongruence score. Prospective data from transgender and gender-diverse (n = 155) and cisgender (n = 69) individuals were then used for a multiparametric psychometric evaluation of the measure. Results: Findings demonstrate excellent levels of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha for current scores: [Alpha] = 0.943; Cronbach's alpha for goal scores: [Alpha] = 0.970), test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.905), longitudinal validity (improvement in therapy for trans women: F = 293.0, p < 0.001; nonbinary folx: F = 80.9, p < 0.001), concurrent validity (correlation with the Trans Woman Voice Questionnaire: r = 0.51, p < 0.001), and known-group expectations (differences among five gender groups: F = 82.7, p < 0.001). Conclusion: The U-GPS is a meaningful measure of voice-related gender incongruence, which is clinically relevant for assessing goals in gender-affirming voice and communication therapy for individuals across the gender spectrum.

This research contributes to ongoing debate surrounding primary teachers' perceptions of key benefits, challenges and effective practice associated with whole-class teaching and learning in the primary school. A review of pre-existing literature relevant to the practice and perceptions of whole-class teaching and learning informed the scope and design of the study. A mixed methods exploratory approach was employed through the distribution of digital questionnaires and one-to-one semi-structured interviews, involving thirty-eight primary teachers employed across ten schools in the East Midlands and South East England. Statistical analysis and thematic, inductive and theoretical coding of the resulting data highlighted perceived social benefits alongside challenges surrounding whole-class adaptive teaching. The findings concluded that whole-class pedagogy may be most effective when diverse approaches to questioning and verbal discourse are collectively embedded within a shared directive for practice, and when the engagement of all pupils is continually promoted and sustained throughout teaching and learning.

Self-efficacy is a key factor in performance success, yet little is known about how music educators nurture students' self-belief within studio and class music lessons. This study explored teachers' perceptions of pedagogical priorities in the development of self-efficacy. The goal was to understand how teachers intuitively nurture students' performance self-efficacy and determine the optimal means by which positive self-perceptions and subsequent musical achievement could be most effectively fostered within music environments. Australian music educators (n = 304) responded to a questionnaire asking them to share their strategies for helping students cope with common performance scenarios (exam, first concert, negative experience, and sub-par performance) and key performance issues such as music performance anxiety and confidence. Qualitative analyses coded to the four self-efficacy sources revealed that teachers preferred to focus on mastery experiences and employ verbal persuasion. The development of vicarious experience or the psychological performance skills that would benefit physiological and affective states were given substantially lower priority. There were also some significant between-group findings in the way that studio and school classroom teachers employed verbal persuasion which may be a reflection of the different teaching environments. Efforts to enhance performance self-efficacy could focus on the less-utilized sources. Further recommendations and implications for music pedagogy are outlined.

The early language environment, especially high-quality, contingent parent-child language interactions, is crucial for a child's language development and later academic success. In this secondary analysis study, 89 parent-child dyads were randomly assigned to either the Music Together® (music) or play date (control) classes. Children were 9- to 15-month old at baseline, primarily white (86.7%) and female (52%). Measures of conversational turns (CTs) and parental verbal quality were coded from parent-child free play episodes at baseline, mid-intervention (month 6), and post-intervention (month 12). Results show that participants in the music group had a significantly greater increase in CT measures and quality of parent verbalization post-intervention. Music enrichment programs may be a strategy to enhance parent--child language interactions during early childhood.

Autoclitics are secondary verbal operants that are controlled by a feature of the conditions that occasion or evoke a primary verbal operant such as a tact or mand. Qualifying autoclitics extend, negate, or assert a speaker's primary verbal response and modify the intensity or direction of the listener's behavior. Howard and Rice (1988) established autoclitics that indicated weak stimulus control (e.g., "like a [primary tact]") with four neurotypical preschool children. However, generalization to newly acquired tacts was limited. In Experiment 1, we addressed similar behavior as in Howard and Rice but with autistic children while using simultaneous teaching procedures, and we observed generalization across sets and with newly acquired tacts. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the effects of multiple-exemplar training on generalization of autoclitics across sets of naturalistic stimuli. Across participants, gradual increases in the frequency of autoclitics occurred with untaught stimuli after teaching with one or more sets.

How might teachers and students deepen dialogic space in online discussions centered on race? This paper explores challenges of creating shared spaces of collective inquiry online across audio/visual/written modes. We explore why participants switch modes--e.g. from oral/visual participation to written chat--while participating in a synchronous video call. We use examples from an online teacher-preparation course at a Southern US university to demonstrate how primarily White prospective/practicing teachers mode-switched during dialogue about Black language and linguistic justice. We identify common types of mode-switching whereby participants resist, revise, and renegotiate dialogic space in online coursework. Across examples, dialogic space emerged or deepened when writing "in the background"--before and/or during class--was foregrounded, bringing prior assumptions and present perspectives into creative tension with emerging understandings. Teachers might consider how relationships among modes like writing and talk, across activities and platforms, can support or inhibit dialogue in face-to-face or online spaces. (150)

The research studied the perception of Deaf college students on the use of a multimodal approach in teaching literacy to them. The research used a case study design to present five Deaf college students who underwent multimodal intervention sessions. The study primarily used qualitative data, supported by quantitative data from instrument scores. There were 10 intervention lessons that followed a scaffolded reading experience framework. Each lesson utilized all four modalities: linguistic, visual, socio-cultural, and kinesthetic. The intervention sessions were separate from the regular literature classes and lasted four months. Data were taken from pre- and post-intervention interview answers, independent work, and results of the QRI-5. Data were content analyzed by thematic analysis. Quantitative data, such as test scores and activities, were plotted to show individual performance. Findings suggested that comprehension is affected by the type of literature read, students' prior knowledge, and availability of the modalities. The study showed that even though the Deaf are generally considered visual learners, the participants in the study prefer the integration of the different modalities for them to comprehend better. Recommendations include for teachers of the Deaf to consider tapping different modalities in teaching, as utilizing a multimodal approach brings out the uniqueness of each learner.

Central to conceptual understanding of STEM disciplines is visuospatial processing. Despite its acknowledged role in assuring learners' success, less is known about the underlying reasoning students must employ when solving 3-D problems and the ways in which gaining an understanding of this can inform formative assessment and learning in STEM education. Chemists must utilise their spatial understanding when visualising 3-D structures and processes from 2-D representations and so this exploratory practitioner-researcher study sought to identify the ways in which secondary school chemistry students reason when explaining their predictions about molecular geometry, and how the use of certain modalities was linked to assessed accuracy. Coding of students' verbal and written responses to the research task revealed that students employed multiple reasoning strategies and conceptual resources to facilitate use of analytical heuristics and imagistic reasoning. Analysis of students' verbal responses and spontaneous gestures provided insight into the extent of imagistic vs. analytical reasoning and the finergrained conditions which promoted their use. Importantly, it was observed that despite being instructed on the use of VSEPR theory to find analytical solutions, some students exhibited preference for alternative reasoning strategies drawing upon imagistic reasoning; showing more nuanced and varying degrees of accuracy through their verbal responses and representations gestured in 3D space. This work has pedagogical implications as use of specific reasoning strategies and the identification of key conceptual resources is not readily promoted as classroom practice for learning or assessment. This study therefore raises questions and contributes to the evidence base for attending to learners' visuospatial thinking, as revealed through the multiple modalities they may use to assist and communicate their understanding, and highlights the significance of this to formative assessment in Chemistry and STEM Education.

Background: Spoken discourse impairments post-traumatic brain injury (TBI) are well-documented and heterogeneous in nature. These impairments have chronic implications for adults in terms of employment, socializing and community involvement. Intervention delivered by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) is recommended for adults with discourse impairments post-TBI, with an emphasis on context-sensitive treatment. The developing evidence base indicates a wide array of treatment components for SLPs to evaluate and implement within their clinical practice. However, there is limited insight into how SLPs are currently treating discourse impairments and the rationales informing clinical practice. Aims: To explore the under-researched area of clinical practice for spoken discourse interventions with adults post-TBI, including treatment components and clinician rationales, and to contribute towards a shared knowledge base. Methods & Procedures: Participants were recruited via purposeful sampling strategies. Six SLPs participated from Australia, the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). Semi-structured interviews were conducted via Zoom. Interviews were manually transcribed, coded and analysed via a qualitative content analysis approach. Outcomes & Results: Participants described discourse treatment practices across various settings and TBI recovery stages. Results indicated that SLPs used numerous treatment activities, resources and outcome measures. Intervention approaches primarily targeted social communication skills, strategy development/utilization and insight-building. Clinical practice conformed to available guidelines where possible, reflected best practice and incorporated components of the research literature. Participants reported using individualized treatment activities aimed at addressing client-specific factors and rationales prioritized tailored, context-sensitive and goal-directed treatment. Conclusions & Implications: This study provided insight into a previously under-researched area. It highlighted a wide range of treatment activities and factors informing current SLPs' treatment of spoken discourse impairment post-TBI. Overall, clinical practice and rationales discussed in this study were aligned with best practice and emphasized a contextualized, individualized approach to discourse treatment across service settings and stages of recovery. Participants identified areas requiring further support, including access to training, resources and research, and the challenge of finding suitable outcome measures. Further investigation into discourse management post-TBI, from initial assessment to outcome measurement, may help inform clinical decision-making and the transfer of research to practice.

Design activities are gaining interest as rich contexts for learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. STEM teachers may find this challenging however, as designing requires support that they are not used to providing. In a subject like chemistry, teachers would have to balance creativity and responsibility for the students with concept learning and safety in the classroom. In a case study, we analyzed the verbal interactions of three teachers with their students during design activities in the classroom, with the aim of understanding what teachers and students talk about and how chemistry teachers support the students with their designs. During the lesson, students worked on the design of a self-heating or self-cooling cup, while also performing chemistry experiments to learn about the energy effects of reactions. Such a lesson reflects what design activities in the chemistry classroom could look like. We described the topics that teachers and students talk about, revealing that teachers support students through several types of feedback and questions. We also found that teachers support design tasks in a more open, constructive, and encouraging way than is used for experiments and chemistry concepts, which are supported in a closed, clarifying, and steering manner.

The aim of this article was to explore whether and how special education documents incorporate efforts to hear young children. The study is based on an in-depth analysis of expert assessments and individual education plans (IEP) pertaining to 17 children enrolled in early education and care (ECEC) institutions in Norway. The documents are scrutinized for explicit attempts to hear young children, as well as in-depth analysis of descriptions of children to see if the text convey efforts to include their perspectives. The findings reveal a clear absence of explicit attempts to listen to children during the assessment process. However, the assessments include information obtained from parents and ECEC regarding children's preferences and interests, suggesting an attempt to represent children's voices by proxy. Although the documents contain various descriptions of children's verbal and non-verbal expressions, these descriptions primarily serve as illustrations of their challenges. The assessments portray children as individuals with difficulties, positioning them as mere 'cases'. At the same time, recommendations and plans for support emphasize listening to children's voices. The findings of this study suggest a need to redefine special education documents in order to listen to children's views and to incorporate alternative understandings into the assessment process.

While video feedback is a commonly used intervention in both professional and educational sports settings, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of training with augmented video feedback in physical education at the K12 level is quite scarce. For this reason, this study aims to investigate the effect of the training with augmented video feedback on middle school students' skill development in a team sport, handball. Based on the periodization of skill training framework, a pre and post-test quasi-experimental research design with a control group was conducted for this aim. A total of 60 middle school students voluntarily participated in the study and were assigned to the intervention and control groups. The students in the intervention group received augmented video feedback while the ones in the control group received verbal feedback only together with the use of other appropriate instructional methods. A rubric was developed and used as the measure of the pre and post-tests by ensuring its validity and reliability. The analysis of covariance was conducted to compare the skill development between the groups. The findings showed that both of the training programs with and without augmented video feedback contributed to the students' skill development. However, the training program with augmented video feedback was much more effective than the one with verbal feedback only. The findings were discussed based on the relevant literature, and implications for practice and recommendations for future research were provided, accordingly.

While consent forms part of the Health, Wellbeing and Relationships strand of the New South Wales (NSW) Personal Development, Health and Physical Education (PDHPE) curriculum in Australia, it is not consistently or effectively delivered within schools. The recent e-campaign, "Teach Us Consent" in NSW, drew attention to the alarmingly high rates of sexual assault experienced by young women during their school years or shortly after. The campaign called for mandatory, inclusive and comprehensive consent education in schools. This paper presents research from a case study of an elite, same-sex, Catholic boys' school in NSW, Australia, examining the types of knowledge and attitudes young men and their PDHPE teachers had about sexual consent and the types of consent pedagogies mobilised. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with the five male PDHPE teachers, and a focus group was conducted with five Year 11 male students (aged 16-17). The findings highlight that while participants recognised the importance of sexual consent in intimate relationships, consent pedagogies were grounded in individualising discourses of risk, responsibility and care, which rearticulated hegemonic gender norms. Findings from this study contribute to discussions of how schools approach consent education, and the limitations presented by outsourcing relationships and sex education.

Background: Children with Tourette syndrome (TS) have historically experienced problems in academic and social settings, yet their language and communication abilities have not been extensively researched. Aims: This scoping review maps the literature on the oral language and social communication abilities of children with TS in order to describe the nature of the current literature, present a summary of major findings and identify where gaps exist. Methods: A scoping review was completed to identify studies measuring the oral language or social communication abilities of children with TS. A systematic search of six electronic databases was conducted to obtain published and unpublished literature. All English studies measuring the oral language or social communication abilities of children with TS were included. Information was extracted from records and knowledge was synthesised in a narrative summary. Main Contribution: We identified 56 records for inclusion. Almost all records were located in journals within the fields of psychology and psychiatry. Skills most often studied were verbal IQ and verbal fluency. The literature suggests an increased prevalence of language disorders and social communication problems in children with TS; however, literature comprehensively detailing these challenges was scarce. Language strengths were identified in verbal intelligence, story/sentence recall, categorisation and performance on tasks at the single-word level. Conclusions: Oral language and social communication skills are important for academic and social success. This review brings scattered literature together to provide up-to-date information about language in children with TS and highlights that there are considerable gaps in our knowledge about language and communication in this population. This scoping review can inform future research and support speech language pathologists in the assessment of young people with TS.

Most internationally recognized instruments for the screening and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder have been developed in the USA, which calls into question the degree of their cultural adaptation to diverse populations. The aim of this study is to examine the characteristics of social communication in typically developing Croatian-speaking participants (N = 220) using ADOS-2-defined item-level normative values. Croatian subjects showed the expected ("typical") results in the domain of verbal communication, slightly atpical results in nonverbal communication (primarily gesture use), and more significant deviations in pragmatics (offering and asking for information), relative to the expectations of the ADOS-2. As ADOS-2 has become an important component of thorough ASD diagnostic evaluations worldwide, identifying methods for increasing the cross-cultural validity is essential.

Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic syndrome. As with all rare syndromes, obtaining adequately powered sample sizes is a challenge. Here we present legacy data from seven UK labs, enabling the characterisation of cross-sectional and longitudinal developmental trajectories of verbal and non-verbal development in the largest sample of individuals with WS to-date. In Study 1, we report cross-sectional data between N = 102 and N = 209 children and adults with WS on measures of verbal and non-verbal ability. In Study 2, we report longitudinal data from N = 17 to N = 54 children and adults with WS who had been tested on at least three timepoints on these measures. Data support the WS characteristic cognitive profile of stronger verbal than non-verbal ability, and shallow developmental progression for both domains. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data demonstrate steeper rates of development in the child participants than the adolescent and adults in our sample. Cross-sectional data indicate steeper development in verbal than non-verbal ability, and that individual differences in the discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal ability are largely accounted for by level of intellectual functioning. A diverging developmental discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal ability, whilst marginal, is not mirrored statistically in the longitudinal data. Cross-sectional and longitudinal data are discussed with reference to validating cross-sectional developmental patterns using longitudinal data and the importance of individual differences in understanding developmental progression.

Background: Tele-collaborative projects serve as invaluable platforms for students from diverse countries to engage in cross-cultural communication and exchange cultural knowledge. These projects offer immense benefits in terms of fostering intercultural competence among participants. However, one challenge arises when participants engage in spoken communication rather than written. Those who may not share a common first language often rely on a lingua franca such as English for intercultural communication. In such spoken exchanges, varying levels of language proficiency can lead to communication errors that hinder the intercultural learning process and impede the development of intercultural competence in their fellow participants. Objectives: In the present trial study, our primary objective was to tackle the language-related challenge associated with spoken communication head-on. Our focus centred on addressing the discrepancies arising in spoken communication, and we aimed to mitigate these discrepancies by utilizing speech-enabled corrective feedback technology. Methods: In a tele-collaborative project involving 28 graduate students from the People's Republic of China and Republic of Kazakhstan, the participants engaged in spoken communication and cultural exchange in English via the internet. Given the emphasis on spoken communication and the recognition that English was not their first language, we implemented a speech-enabled corrective feedback (SECF) technology to ensure effective communication in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and word choice. The SECF technology detected and provided instant feedback on any speech mistakes, enabling participants to make corrections accordingly. The main aim of our study was to explore the potential benefits of integrating SECF technology into a tele-collaborative project for the development of participants' intercultural competence. Additionally, we sought to gather insights into the students' perceptions of the SECF support. Results and Conclusions: The results of our study revealed significant improvements in the participants' intercultural competence across dimensions such as knowledge, skills, attitude, and awareness. Furthermore, the participants expressed positive perceptions of the SECF technology. Drawing from our findings, we offer valuable implications and recommendations for educators and researchers in the field, enhancing their understanding of the role of SECF technology in supporting intercultural competence development in tele-collaborative settings.

This study investigates pharmacy students' reasoning while solving a case task concerning an acute patient counselling situation in a pharmacy. Participants' (N = 34) reasoning processes were investigated with written tasks utilizing eye-tracking in combination with verbal protocols. The case was presented in three pages, each page being followed by written questions. Eye movements were recorded during case processing. Success in the task required differentiating the relevant information from the task redundant information, and initial activation of several scripts and verification of the most likely one, when additional information became available. 2nd (n = 16) and 3rd (n = 18)-year students' and better and worse succeeding students' processes were compared. The results showed that only a few 2nd-year students solved the case correctly, whereas almost all of the 3rd-year students were successful. Generally, the average total processing times of the case material did not differ between the groups. However, better-succeeding and 3rd-year students processed the very first task-relevant sentences longer, indicating that they were able to focus on relevant information. Differences in the written answers to the 2nd and 3rd question were significant, whereas differences regarding the first question were not. Thus, eye-tracking seems to be able to capture illness script activation during case processing, but other methods are needed to depict the script verification process. Based on the results, pedagogical suggestions for advancing pharmacy education are discussed.

Communication and literacy development of young children is shaped by the nature of social and cultural relationships in everyday situations. Few studies, however, have explored early story experiences encountered by infants and toddlers in naturalistic settings. We argue that personal stories about everyday lived experiences are a vital context for considering how toddlers develop communicative competencies as they participate in these stories within their families and communities. The paper presents selected findings from a qualitative study underpinned by a broad theoretical view of story embedded in a sociocultural, participatory framework. We contend that stories are collaborative, social endeavours in which intersubjectivity is accomplished collectively and multimodally. Evidence is offered of the communicative process enacted by 1-year-old Lexie, her parent, teacher and peers, as they shared meaning together in a personal story about eating lunch. Lexie and her family were participants in a wider study of the story experiences of 1-year-old toddlers, within and across their family home and early childhood settings, in a culturally diverse community of Aotearoa New Zealand. Drawing on multimodal ethnography and video data, findings illustrate how Lexie and her family, teacher and peers actively participated together in the weaving of a shared personal story using verbal, visual and kinaesthetic forms of communication. The study contributes to the field of early childhood literacy by providing unique insights into the potential of everyday personal stories as a valuable context for exploring ways children's communicative competencies are developed through relationships in family and community settings.

Verbal Fluency (VF) task total scores are widely used in language attrition studies, but they do not provide insight into the processes underlying optimal performance. We analyse the efficacy of clustering (subcategories within a category) and switching (shifting between these subcategories) strategies in phonemic (PVF) and semantic (SVF) tasks. First, we focus on L1 Finnish and L2 English performance among attriters (N = 38). Our analyses suggest similar processes underlying performance in both languages. These processes seem to remain unaffected by immersion time in the L2 environment (LoR) and frequency of L1 use, highlighting the importance of including L2 data alongside comparisons to L1 monolingual populations to account for a broad bilingual effect in language attrition studies. Second, we compare attriters' and monolinguals' (N = 50) performance in L1. Our findings suggest that attriters rely on clustering in PVF more systematically than monolinguals, and they struggle to initiate a search for a new subcategory or return to a previous category (switching) after depleting a cluster in PVF and SVF tasks. Thus, our analysis demonstrates a difference in processing strategies between the groups that could potentially contribute to similar total scores in PVF and lower total scores in the attriter group in SVF.

The acquisition of communicative competence in second and foreign languages requires the incorporation of verbal and non-verbal elements. Notwithstanding, few studies have performed empirical research into the acquisition of non-verbal signs. This research studies the learning of emblematic gestures for students of Spanish in the USA using an evolutionary analysis after instruction. Interactions between types of gestures (common, different, and unique) based on the similarities with the first language and learning mechanisms in free and guided comprehension and production tasks are taken into account. The results indicate that although the detection and production of emblems improve with instruction, the progress is unequal: the categories different and unique obtain a higher rate of improvement than common emblems in specific tasks. In conclusion, it is essential for the teaching of gestures and non-verbal communication to consider, along with the non-verbal target language code, the non-verbal mother tongue code.

In this paper, we aimed to examine what characterizes teachers' interactions with children in micro-level transitions in Norwegian preschools. We used video and observed transitions at the micro level, such as between meal and sleeping time, and between playing and meals. The participants were 22 teachers from 22 classrooms in 17 preschools. We used a stepwise-deductive-inductive approach (SDI) in the analysis. Our results indicated that there were four dimensions in the teachers' interactions with the children: 1) verbally directed toward the children; 2) bodily directed toward the children; 3) verbally directed toward the practical; and 4) bodily directed toward the practical. Based on different variations in these four dimensions, we found four dynamic characteristics: informing, facilitating, exploring, and affirmative. These characteristics appeared to be connected to organizational factors, such as the number of children and adults present.

The current study examined vocalizations that occurred during training of the Picture Exchange Communication System for three U.S. preschool-age participants with autism spectrum disorder. In Phase IV, the protocol incorporates a delay to reinforcement in an effort to encourage vocalizations; however, the manual does not suggest additional strategies to try when vocalizations do not occur during the delay to reinforcement. Researchers evaluated a vocal model prompt following the delay to reinforcement and continued to measure vocalizations when the delay to reinforcement alone did not increase vocalizations. Two of the three participants increased independent vocalizations after the addition of the vocal model. Implications for practitioners and future research are discussed.

Background: When mathematical knowledge is expressed in general language, it is called verbalized mathematics. Previous studies on verbalized mathematics typically paid attention to mathematical vocabulary or educational practice. However, these studies did not exclude the role of symbolic mathematics ability, and almost no research has focused on verbalized mathematical principles. Aims: This study is aimed to investigate whether verbalized mathematics ability independently predicts mathematics achievement. The current study hypothesized that verbalized mathematics ability supports mathematics achievement independent of general language, related cognitive abilities and even symbolic mathematical ability. Sample: A sample of 241 undergraduates (136 males, 105 females, mean age = 21.95, SD = 2.38) in Beijing, China. Methods: A total of 12 tests were used, including a verbalized arithmetic principle test, a mathematics achievement test, and tests on general language (sentence completion test), symbolic mathematical ability (including symbolic arithmetic principles test, simple arithmetic computation and complex arithmetic computation), approximate number sense ability (numerosity comparison test) and several related cognitive covariates (including the non-verbal matrix reasoning, the syllogism reasoning, mental rotation, figure matching and choice reaction time). Results: Results showed that the processing of verbalized arithmetic principles displayed a significant role in mathematics achievement after controlling for general language, related cognitive abilities, approximate number sense ability and symbolic mathematics ability. Conclusions: The results suggest that verbalized mathematics ability was an independent predictor and provided empirical evidence supporting the verbalized mathematics role on achievement as an independent component in three-component mathematics model.

Purpose: In this paper the authors have sought to create solid connection between theory and practices pertaining to the immense value of students' emotional engagement in online instruction. This conceptual paper is motivated by the inadequacy of literature translating the emotional engagement concept to the micro level of online instructions within the upsurge intention to the new trend of online teaching-learning. This paper aims to contribute by addressing the fundamental issues of emotional engagement starting from revisiting the roles of teachers in students' emotional engagement, reviewing and underscoring the importance of students' emotional engagement in higher education and finally conceptualizing and framing how to infuse emotional engagement into the instructions. Design/methodology/approach: The explanation of how to advocate for students' emotional engagement in online learning praxis is inadequately discussed although the library of literature has informed the fundamental role of students' emotional engagement in establishing successful online learning. This paper aims to address this practical need by interactively connecting the theory, empirical findings and pedagogical practices in the area to provide praxeological contribution to the development of quality online teaching-learning practices. Findings: This study presents a framework that advances the existing body of research at the juncture of emotional engagement and online learning. This conceptual paper foregrounds an examination of the roles of teachers in students' emotional engagement and underscores the significance of students' emotional engagement in higher education. Moreover, it proposes a conceptual framework delineating effective strategies for the integration of emotional engagement within instructional methodologies. This framework comprises four key aspects: (1) fostering students' learning autonomy and ownership, (2) establishing socioemotional construction through verbal and non-verbal expressions, (3) integrating a multimodal approach to online learning and (4) honing the art of constructive feedback. Research limitations/implications: This conceptual paper is rooted in a nested theory and draws upon empirical studies. While the presented framework holds promise, its efficacy in the classroom setting requires validation through further empirical investigation. Practical implications: Those proposed pedagogical strategies detailed with the practical examples explained in the previous part would afford students with a better socioemotional amenities of learning environment benefitting them with positive affective engagement. Originality/value Given the imperative to enhance students' emotional engagement in online learning and the limited discourse surrounding its practical implementation, the proposed framework stands poised to enrich and inform online pedagogical practices.

The goal of this paper is to bring new insights to the study of social learning processes by designing measures of collaboration using high-frequency sensor data. More specifically, we are interested in understanding the interplay between moments of collaboration and cooperation, which is an understudied area of research. We collected a multimodal dataset during a collaborative learning activity typical of makerspaces: learning how to program a robot. Pairs of participants were introduced to computational thinking concepts using a block-based environment. Mobile eye-trackers, physiological wristbands, and motion sensors captured their behavior and social interactions. In this paper, we analyze the eye-tracking data to capture participants' tendency to synchronize their visual attention. This paper provides three contributions: (1) we use an emerging methodology (mobile dual eye-tracking) to capture joint visual attention in a co-located setting and replicate findings that show how levels of joint visual attention are positively correlated with collaboration quality; (2) we qualitatively analyzed the co-occurrence of verbal activity and joint visual attention in low and high performing groups to better understand moments of collaboration and cooperation; (3) inspired by the qualitative observations and theories of collaborative learning, we designed a new quantitative measure that captures cycles of collaborative and cooperative work. Compared to simple measures of joint visual attention, we found it to increase correlation coefficients with learning and collaboration scores. We discuss those results and describe how advances in analyzing sensor data can contribute to theories of collaboration. We conclude with implications for capturing students' interactions in co-located spaces using Multimodal Learning Analytics (MMLA).

In this article, the authors argue for what Édouard Glissant terms the 'right to opacity' in teaching and assessing communication and language skills in early childhood education (ECE). We draw from Glissant's writing on Relation, and his interrelated concepts of 'opacity' and 'transparency', to consider two vignettes from sensory ethnographic research conducted in ECE settings: a special education classroom and a nursery. We contest the international emphasis on efficiency, clarity, and rationality in ECE communication and language provision as one informed by colonial and ableist logics of 'transparency'. Instead, we argue for an attention to moments of what we call 'opaque reciprocity': of (1) non-dyadic, non-developmentalist, more-than-human exchange, within which (2) authorship becomes distributed inter-subjectively, thereby (3) de-emphasising efficient, clear, and rational notions of meaning-making.

Problem-oriented teaching (POT) activities are important in classroom instruction. The level of student response can be influenced by different teacher behaviours in POT. However, the characteristics of teachers' multimodal behaviours at different levels of response are unclear. This study applied epistemic network analysis to explore the characteristics of teachers' multimodal behaviours in POT with different response levels. Using 256 POT segments from 12 classroom teaching videos in primary and secondary schools, this study found that authentic questions and iconic gestures occupied a central position in multimodal behaviours. The concomitant use of multimodal behaviours and the flexibility in eye contact could improve the response levels of students. These findings help understand how teachers' multimodal behaviours can promote students' responses.

Engaging in frequent, meaningful conversation during the early years of schooling is foundational for children's literacy development. Specifically, developing oral language through daily conversations is essential for language comprehension, and eventually, reading comprehension. In this article, we discuss how teachers can use the Strive-for-Five framework to strategically engage students (preschool through Grade 1) in meaningful back-and-forth conversations. Using Scarborough's Reading Rope, we illustrate how teachers can elevate the quality of conversations to enhance literacy knowledge, vocabulary, verbal reasoning, background knowledge, and language structures.

Teachers have a major impact on students' social cognition and behaviors, and previous research has found that students who have positive relationships with their teachers tend to be less bullied by their peers. However, this line of research is limited in that it has been (a) Dominated by cross-sectional studies and (b) Treated bullying victimization as a global construct without differentiating among its different forms (i.e., verbal, physical, and relational). The links might be reciprocal but further studies are needed to investigate the directionality. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the longitudinal associations between student-teacher relationship quality and two forms of bullying victimization, namely verbal and relational victimization. Three waves of data from 1885 Swedish fourth- through sixth-grade students were analyzed with cross-lagged panel models. The findings showed that the student-teacher relationship quality predicted and was predicted by verbal and relational victimization. Our findings thus underscore the importance of striving for caring, warm, supportive, and respectful student-teacher relationships as a component of schools' prevention efforts.

More and more, people are abandoning the active pursuit of news, assuming instead that important information will be pushed to them via their social media networks. This approach to news makes people susceptible to the vast amounts of misinformation online, yet research on the effects of this kind of engagement is mixed. More research is needed on technology incidental learning effects, defined as changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors as a result of being exposed to information while pursuing goals other than learning (e.g., entertainment). In this study, we examined how 51 college students responded to incidental exposure to accurate and inaccurate COVID-19 information delivered via a simulated social media environment. Participants' verbalizations during think-aloud protocols indicated numerous mental processes including cognition, metacognition, epistemic cognition, motivation, and emotions. Positively valanced mental processing was more often expressed with accurate COVID-19 information and negatively valanced mental processing was more often verbalized with misinformation. Negatively valanced evaluations of knowledge claims and sources predicted less engagement with COVID-19 misinformation posts. However, in many cases the relations among verbalized mental processing and behavioral responses were complex or nonobvious. For example, participants' positive metacognition and epistemic cognition verbalizations decreased their likelihood of engaging with accurate COVID-19 information, whereas positive interest was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging with misinformation. Our findings have implications for how to accurately infer people's beliefs and intentions from their social media behaviors and how to design interventions to help people be more active and thoughtful consumers of online information.

Inaudible syntactic markers are especially difficult to spell. This paper examines how 455 fourth graders spell silent French plural markers in a dictation with real and pseudowords after one year of formal French instruction (L2). The Generalized Linear Mixed Model analysis shows first that noun plural spelling (real and pseudo) is a strong predictor for verb and adjective plural spelling. Second, the performance on real verb plural is higher than the performance on real adjective plural. In contrast, the performance on pseudoadjective plural is higher than on pseudoverb plural. Our findings indicate the strong influence of semantics and frequency in instruction input on plural spelling: noun plural is semantically grounded, and nouns are most frequent in the curriculum. Verbs and verb plural are also frequent, and inflection is mostly taught by means of memorizing the verb inflection paradigm. Adjectives are taught least frequently. The findings are discussed in the context of French L2 instruction, as the extremely low results on adjectives and pseudoverbs seem to be a consequence of instruction methods.

This paper presents the concept of silent discussions and offers insight into how the method can support linguistic autonomy, accessibility, and student accountability. It also outlines techniques used to improve discussion outcomes in secondary and other classrooms. Silence, while seemingly counterintuitive in classrooms and other spaces where writing happens, can benefit our students' quality of discussions and encourage them to engage more in classroom discussions. "Silent Discussions" is a method of communication adopted from both wide discourse on freewriting and Silicon Valley's obsession with efficiency and alternative practices. In these silent discussions, students respond to a shared discussion document through annotations, review their colleagues' responses in silence, and finally join a "loud" discussion that extends ideas and threads from the silent discussion. Building more intentional silence into classrooms can make discussions focused, accessible, and equitable for our middle and high school students, including those who may be multilingual, have social anxiety, need more time to respond, and even those who emerged from the pandemic with preferences for asynchronous communication.

This study aims to determine the cognitive awareness of reading strategies of secondary school students, the relation between the cognitive awareness of reading strategies and writing anxiety, and the common effect of some variables on cognitive awareness of reading strategies. This quantitative study is an example of a relational survey model with correlational research features. Data have been collected through two different scales. 339 secondary school students have participated in this research. Mean, frequencies, standard deviation, Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Simple Linear Regression, and Two Way Anova have been used for data analysis. As a result of the study, secondary school students have good cognitive awareness of reading strategies, and there is a negative relation between cognitive awareness of reading strategies and writing anxiety. Verbal academic success is a predictor of cognitive awareness of reading strategies, and the common effect of gender and writing anxiety doesn't influence cognitive awareness of reading strategies.

Achievement tests are among the most widely used data collection tools to measure the knowledge and skill levels of individuals. For this reason, the existence of valid and reliable achievement tests that can perfectly reveal the competencies that a person should have in any discipline is of great importance. The purpose of this research is to provide evidence for the validity and reliability of an achievement test that will be used to reveal the verbal competencies of adults and the degree of these competencies. In the first part of the study, 1200 multiple-choice questions were prepared from the verbal domain. The prepared items were reduced to 1030 items by passing the expert opinion. Based on the criteria determined by Webb (1997) for the evaluation of learning outcomes, the opinions of field experts and experienced teachers were evaluated. In the second part of the study, a pilot application was made to 3.250 participants across Turkey on the e-platform created. Item analysis with the ITEMAN program showed that the test was valid to some degree. The KR-20 reliability coefficient was found to be 0.77, providing evidence of the reliability of the test. It is expected that the developed test will contribute to revealing basic skills in adults and be used in related research.

Drawing on the rhetorical/relational goal theory, this study examined the role of instructor clarity and non-verbal immediacy in affective learning through the mediation of instructor understanding. Data were gathered through close-ended questionnaires from 756 Chinese and 715 Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) students, the factor structure and cross-cultural validity of which were supported via confirmatory factor analysis and testing measurement invariance, respectively. Path analysis results indicated that clarity and non-verbal immediacy positively predicted instructor understanding and affective learning; instructor understanding positively predicted affective learning; and understanding was a significant positive mediator in the relationship of non-verbal immediacy and clarity with affective learning. Except for the positive association of non-verbal immediacy with understanding which was significantly higher for the Iranian group, no significant difference was found between the Chinese and Iranian groups in all other associations, providing empirical support for the role of EFL teachers' positive interpersonal communication behaviors in EFL students' affective learning, irrespective of the cultural context.

This study aimed to discover the levels of family communication patterns and criminal behavior and elucidate their relationship in Jordan. This study adopted the descriptive correlational approach. The sample consisted of 189 juvenile delinquents in reform and rehabilitation centers in Jordan. To achieve the objectives of the study, measures of family communication patterns and criminal behavior were developed and applied after confirming the validity and reliability of the tools. Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlation were used to analyze data. The results related to family communication patterns showed that the reproach and dispersed patterns were highly prevalent. The appeasement and verbal behavior patterns were moderately prevalent, and the nonverbal and ideal patterns scored were least common. The results also indicated that the level of criminal behavior among juvenile delinquents in Jordan was high. There was a direct relationship between criminal behavior and two types of communication (dispersed and reproachful) and an inverse relationship between criminal behavior and the other patterns (verbal, non-verbal, appeasement and ideal communication). The study concluded with several recommendations. The most important of these are conducting qualitative studies to identify the causes of criminal behavior and implementing treatment programs to reduce these behaviors.

International students make up an increasingly large portion of the US student population, especially among graduate students studying the science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) fields. In this article we analyzed the microaggression experiences of 22 international students in graduate STEM programs at predominantly white institutions. International students, often people of color (PoC), may be subject to facing discrimination within their universities. Our results break down the different types of microaggressions that our participants reported experiencing from faculty, peers and students, both on and off campus. These experiences include individuals insulting a participant's country of origin, doubting their academic ability, threatening them, and otherwise discriminating against them. Each event reported by our participants is classified into a type of microaggression and is further discussed using Critical Race Theory to connect how international students' racialized and intersectional experiences are connected to the larger societal issues of racism in the US.

This study aims to analyze how professionals preparing to use technology in education reflect on the phenomenon of chatbots as learning objects. The study is divided into two parts. For the first part of the study, 17 studies indexed in the Web of Science database that focus on using chatbots in education were selected for a systematic review. From this study, six discourses were identified: a Chatbot is not human; a Chatbot is developed iteratively; a Chatbot is a solution to a specific educational problem; a Chatbot is a technological issue; a Chatbot is constituted by narrative and a distinct "psychology"; and a Chatbot is always available with the correct information. In the second part of the study, the responses of 29 respondents (12 teaching librarians and 17 students of the Educational Technology course) to questions about chatbots were processed by qualitative analysis. The analysis used the discourses obtained from the review study and examined their specific perception among this particular group. A key result was that even though the respondents worked with three chatbots without AI, they mentioned similar characteristics in their evaluation that they would apply to a live teacher. Thus, they understand chatbots as part of their learning environment without differentiating between living and nonliving systems.

The aim of this study is to examine the punishment behaviors used by mothers in the process of teaching behaviors to their children. For this purpose, data were collected from 26 mothers with at least one child between the ages of 3 and 11 using a semi-structured interview form. The collected data were analyzed by content analysis. As a result of the analysis, it was found that mothers used two different styles of punishment: Verbal/Physical Violence and Verbal/Physical Restraint. Verbal/Physical Restraint includes maternal behaviors such as restricting children's access to something they like or want, not talking to them at all or talking less, sending them to a different place and making them stay there for a while, and ignoring them audio-visually for a while. Verbal/Physical Violence includes maternal behaviors such as rebuking, threatening, beating, getting angry, raising her voice, yelling, and speaking harshly to children. The results of the study were discussed within the framework of the literature and recommendations were made.

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to identify the negative behaviors that constitute bullying in higher education as reported by students, and (b) to explore differences in student experiences in two markedly different national contexts. A sample of 1,189 respondents from two universities in Ghana (n = 751) and two universities in Norway (n = 438) answered the same questionnaire. Approximately 40% of the Ghanaian students and 20% of the Norwegian students responded that they had been bullied. Although less frequently observed than in Ghana, relational forms of bullying (e.g., being excluded) were more prevalent in Norway compared to other behaviors. In contrast, direct and verbal forms of bullying, such as name-calling and being taunted, were most common in Ghana. The findings provide insights into cultural and national variations with respect to negative social behaviors related to bullying in the context of higher education.

This study explored international student sense of belonging within three state universities in New England and found a concurrent theme of microaggressions and neo-racism on their campuses that has affected their sense of belonging. Despite trends in the international higher education literature that have historically investigated ways to improve the academic experiences and engagement of international students, the findings indicate less attention has been paid to the sense of belonging felt by these students, particularly how microaggressions and neo-racism affect their sense of belonging. Microaggressions, or subtle verbal or nonverbal insults directed towards people of color, often unconsciously (Solorzano et al., 2000), were a common experience of international student participants and frequently mentioned in communications with faculty, domestic students, and staff participants. Suggestions for best practices in fostering international student sense of belonging for higher education professionals and practitioners are also discussed.